Cognitive Impairment in Geriatric Schizophrenic Patients :

Clinical and Postmortem Characterization

Michael Davidson and Vahram Haroutunian
Department of Psychiatry
Mount Sinai School of Medicine/Bronx Veterans Affairs Medical Center
Bronx, New York 10468.


REFERENCES

1. Abrahamson D. Institutionalization and the long-term course of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1993;162:533-538.

2. Akbarian S, Bunney WE, Potkin SG, et al. Altered distribution of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase cells in frontal lobe of schizophrenics implies disturbances of cortical development. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:169-177.

3. Akbarian S, Vinuela A, Kim JJ, Potkin SG, Bunney WE, Jones EG. Distorted distribution of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase neurons in temporal lobe of schizophrenics implies anomalous cortical development. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:178-187.

4. Alhainen K, Sirvi` J, Helkala EL, Reinikainen K, Riekkinen P. Somatostatin and cognitive functions in Alzheimer's disease--the relationship of cerebrospinal fluid somatostatin increase with clinical response to tetrahydroaminoacridine. Neurosci Lett 1991; 130:46-48.

5. Andreason NC, Olsen S. Negative vs. positive schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:789-794.

6. Arnold SE, Franz BR, Trojanowski JQ. Lack of neuropathological findings in elderly patients with schizophrenia and dementia. Neurosci Abstr 1993;18:340-350.

7. Arnold SE, Hyman BT, Van Hoesen GW, Damasio AR. Some cytoarchitectural abnormalities of the entorhinal cortex in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:625-632.

8. Bellack AS, Mueser KT. Psychosocial treatment for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1993;19(2):199-448.

9. Benes FM, Majocha R, Bird ED, Marotta CA. Increased vertical axon counts in cingulate cortex of schizophrenics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44:1017-1021.

10. Benes F, McSparren J, Bird E, SanGiovanni J, Vincent S. Deficits in small interneurons in prefrontal and cingulate cortices of schizophrenic and schizoaffective patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991; 48:996-1001.

11. Bird E, Barnes J, Iversen L, Spokes E, Mackay A, Shepherd M. Increased brain dopamine and reduced glutamic acid decarboxylase and choline acetyl transferase activity in schizophrenia and related psychoses. Lancet 1977;3:1157-1159.

12. Bridge TP, Kleinman JE, Karoum F, Wyatt RJ. Postmortem central catecholamines and antemortem cognitive impairment in elderly schizophrenics and controls. Neuropsychobiology 1985;14:57-61.

13. Brier A, Schreiber JL, Dyer J, Pickar D. National Institute of Mental Health longitudinal study of schizophrenia: prognosis and predictors of outcome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:239-246.

14. Bromet EJ, Schwartz JE, Fennig S, et al. The epidemiology of psychosis: the Suffolk County Mental Health Project. Schizophr Bull 1992;18(2):243-255.

15. Brown R, Colter N, Corsellis N, et al. Postmortem evidence of structural brain changes in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986;43:36-42.

16. Burton C, Crow T, Frith C, Johnstone E, Owens D, Roberts G. Schizophrenia and the brain: a prospective clinico-neuropathological study. Psychol Med 1990;20:285-304.

17. Calne D, Peppard R. Aging of the nigrostriatal pathway in humans. Can J Neurol Sci 1987;14:424-427.

18. Chai B, Meltzer HY. The effect of chronic clozapine on basal dopamine release and apomorphine-induced DA release in the striatum and nucleus accumbens as measured by in vivo brain microdialysis. Neurosci Lett 1992;140(1):47-50.

19. Chan-Palay V, Asan E. Quantitation of catecholamine neurons in the locus coeruleus in human brains of normal young and older adults and in depression. J Comp Neurol 1989;287:357-372.

20. Ciompi L. The natural history of schizophrenia in the long-term. Br J Psychiatry 1980;136:413-420.

21. Conrad A, Scheibel A. Schizophrenia and the hippocampus: the embryological hypothesis extended. Schizophr Bull 1987;3(4):577-587.

22. Davidson M, Haroutunian V, Gabriel SM, et al. Cognitive impairment in elderly schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res 1994;11(2): 162.

23. El-Mallakh RS, Kirch DG, Shelton R, et al. The nucleus basalis of Meynert, senile plaques, and intellectual impairment in schizophrenia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1991;3:383-386.

24. Gabriel SM, Bierer LM, Haroutunian V, Purohit DP, Perl DP, Davis KL. Widespread deficits in somatostatin but not neuropeptide-Y concentrations in Alzheimer's disease cerebral cortex. Neurosci Lett 1993;155:116-120.

25. Glantz LA, Lewis DA. Synaptophysin immunoreactivity is selectively decreased in the prefrontal cortex of schizophrenic subjects. Neurosci Abstr 1993;18:84-90.

26. Goldberg TE, Bigelow LB, Weinberger DR, et al. Cognitive and behavioral effects of the coadministration of dextroamphetamine and haloperidol in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:78-84.

27. Goldberg TE, Hyde TM, Lleinman JE, Weinberger DR. Course of schizophrenia: neuropsychological evidence for a static encephalopathy. Schizophr Bull 1993;19(4):797-804.

28. Goldberg TE, Greenberg R, Griffin S, et al. Impact of clozapine on cognitive impairment and clinical symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1993;162:43-38.

29. Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR, Berman KF, Pliskin NH, Podd MH. Further evidence for dementia of the pre-frontal type in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44:1008-1014.

30. Goldstein G, Zubin J. Neuropsychological differences between young and old schizophrenics with and without associated neurological dysfunction. Schizophr Res 1990;3:117-126.

31. Goldstein G, Zubin J, Pogue-Geile MF. Hospitalization and the cognitive deficits of schizophrenia: the influences of age and education. J Nerv Ment Dis 1991;179(4):202-205.

32. Gurland BJ, Cross PS. Epidemiology of psychopathology in old age. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1982;98(4):478-486.

33. Harding CM, Zubin J, Strauss JS. Chronicity in schizophrenia revisited. Br J Psychiatry 1992;161(Suppl 18):27-37.

34. Haroutunian V, Davidson M, Kanof PD, et al. Cortical cholinergic markers in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1994;12:137-144.

35. Haroutunian V, Santucci AC, Davis KL. Neurotransmitter interactions and responsivity to cholinomimetic agents. In: Levin ED, Decker MW, Butcher LL, eds. Neurotransmitter interactions and cognitive function. Boston: Birkhauser, 1992;118-143.

36. Heaton RK, Drexler M. Clinical neuropsychological findings in schizophrenia and aging. In: Miller NE, Cohen GD, eds. Schizophrenia and aging. New York: Guilford Press, 1987.

37. Heckers S, Heinsen H, Heinsen Y, Beckmann H. Limbic structures and lateral ventricle in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990;47:1016-1022.

38. Heckers S, Mash D, Geula C, Mesulam MM. Basal forebrain and striatal cholinergic neurons in schizophrenia. Neurosci Abstr 1993;18:340.6.

39. Honer WG, Kaufmann CA, Kleinman JE, Casanova MF, Davies P. Monoclonal antibodies to study the brain in schizophrenia. Brain Res 1989;500:379-383.

40. Johnstone EC, Owens DGC, Gold A, Crow TJ, Macmillan JF. Institutionalization and the defects of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1981;139:195-203.

41. Karson CN, Casanova MR, Kleinman JE, Griffin WST. Choline acetyltransferase in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150(3):454-459.

42. Karson CN, Lyon N, Bracha HS, Guggenheim FG. The profile of cognitive impairment in elderly dyskinetic subjects. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993;5:61-65.

43. Kerwin R, Robinson P, Stephenson J. Distribution of CCK binding sites in the human hippocampal formation and their alteration in schizophrenia: a post-mortem autoradiographic study. Psychol Med 1992;22:37-43.

44. Kowall NW, Beal MF. Cortical somatostatin, neuropeptide Y, and NADPH diaphorase neurons: normal anatomy and alterations in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1988;23:105-114.

45. Lohr J, Wisniewski A, Jeste DV. Neurological aspects of tardive dyskinesia. In: Nasrallah HA, Weinberger DR, eds. The neurology of schizophrenia. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1986; 97-119.

46. Lyon N, Lawson W, Amick R, Karson C. The profile of cognitive impairment in elderly schizophrenic subjects. Biol Psychiatry 1992;31:193(A).

47. Mathai PJ, Gopinath PS. Deficits of chronic schizophrenia in relation to long-term hospitalization. Br J Psychiatry 1985;148:509-516.

48. McKenna PJ, Lund CE, Mortimer AM. Negative symptoms: relationship to other schizophrenic symptom classes. Br J Psychiatry 1989;155(Suppl 7):104-107.

49. Meltzer HY. Dimensions of outcome with clozapine. Br J Psychiatry [Suppl] 1992;17:46-53.

50. Mirra SS, Heyman A, McKeel D, et al. The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD). Part II. Standardization of the neuropathologic assessment of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1991;41:479-486.

51. Morris JC, Edland S, Clark C, et al. The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD). Part IV. Rates of cognitive change in the longitudinal assessment of probable Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993;43:2457-2465.

52. Muir JL, Dunnett SB, Robins TW, Everitt BJ. Attentional functions of the forebrain cholinergic systems: effects of intraventricular hemicholinium, physostigmine, basal forebrain lesions and intracortical grafts on a multiple-choice serial reaction time task. Exp Brain Res 1992;89:611-622.

53. Mukherjee P, Decina P, Scapicchio PL. Temporal course of cognitive impairment in elderly, chronic schizophrenic patients: a prospective longitudinal study. Schizophr Res 1993;9(2):105-106.

54. Nemeroff CB, Bissette G. Neuropeptides, dopamine, and schizophrenia. Ann NY Acad Sci 1988;537:273-291.

55. Pakkenberg B. Post-mortem study of chronic schizophrenic brains. Br J Psychiatry 1987;151:744-752.

56. Paulsen JS, Heaton R, Jeste DV. Neuropsychological impairment in tardive dyskinesia. Neuropsychology 1994;8(2):227-241.

57. Peterson RC, Smith E, Kokmen E, Ivnik RJ, Tangalos EG. Memory function in normal aging. Neurology 1992;42:396-401.

58. Powchik P, Davidson M, Nemeroff CB, et al. Alzheimer's disease related protein in geriatric schizophrenic patients with cognitive impairment. Am J Psychiatry 1994;150:1726-1727.

59. Prohovnik I, Dwork AJ, Kaufman MA, Willson N. Alzheimer-type neuropathology in elderly schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Bull 1993;19:805-816.

60. Purohit DP, Davidson M, Perl DP, et al. Severe cognitive impairment in elderly schizophrenic patients: a clinicopathological study. Biol Psychiatry 1993;33:255-260.

61. Regier DA, Boyd JH, Burke JD, et al. One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45(11):977-986.

62. Rollins LY, Logel J, Drebing C, et al. Evidence for association of the a7 neuronal nicotinic cholinergic receptor with auditory evoked potential deficits in schizophrenia [Abstract 340.4]. Soc Neurosci Abstr 1993;19:837.

63. Rosenstein MJ, Milazzo-Sayre LJ, Manderscheid RW. Characteristics of persons using specialty inpatient, outpatient, and partial care programs in 1986. In: Manderscheid RW, Sonnenschein MA, eds. National Institute of Mental Health. Mental Health, United States, 1990. DHHS publication no. (ADM)90-1708. Washington, DC: Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing Office, 1990;139-172.

64. Sawaguchi T, Goldman-Rakic PS. D1 dopamine receptors in prefrontal corex: involvement in working memory. Science 1991; 251:947-950.

65. Saykin AJ, Gur RC, Gur RE, et al. Neuropsychological function in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:618-632.

66. Schaie KW. The impact of methodological changes in gerontology. Int J Aging Hum Dev 1992;35(1):19-29.

67. Schwartzman AE, Douglas VI. Intellectual loss in schizophrenia, Part I. Can J Psychol 1962;16:1-10.

68. Serper MR, Bergman RL, Harvey PD. Medication may be required for the development of automatic information processing in schizophrenia. Psychiatr Res 1990;32(3):281-288.

69. Shenton ME, Kikinis R, Ferenc A, et al. Abnormalities of the left temporal lobe and thought disorder in schizophrenia: a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. N Engl J Med 1992; 327(9):604-612.

70. Stevens J. Neuropathology of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:1131-1139.

71. Strahan GW. Prevalence of selected mental disorders in nursing and related care homes. In: Manderscheid RW, Sonnenschein MA, eds. National Institute of Mental Health. Mental Health, United States, 1990. DHHS publication no. (ADM)90-1708. Washington, DC: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990:227-240.

72. Terry RD, Masliah E, Salmon DP, et al. Physical basis of cognitive alterations in Alzheimer's disease: synapse loss is the major correlate of cognitive impairment. Ann Neurol 1991;30:572-580.

73. Terry R, DeTeresa R, Hansen L. Neocortical cell counts in normal human adult aging. Ann Neurol 1987;21(6):530-539.

74. Uhlmann RF, Larson EB. Effect of education on the Mini-Mental State Examination as a screening test for dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 1991;39(9):876-880.

75. Unger JW, Lange W. NADPH-diaphorase-positive cell populations in the human amygdala and temporal cortex: neuroanatomy, peptidergic characteristics and aspects of aging and Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1992;83:636-646.

76. Weinberger DR, Berman KF, Suddath R, Torrey EF. Evidence of dysfunction of a prefrontal-limbic network in schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance imaging and regional cerebral blood flow study of discordant monozygotic twins. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:890-897.

77. Wexler BE. Beyond the Kraepelinian dichotomy. Biol Psychiatry 1992;31:539-541.

78. Wing JK, Brown J. Institutionalism and Schizophrenia London: Cambridge University Press, 1970.

79. Wyatt RJ. Neuroleptics and the natural course of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1991;17:325-351.

80. Wykes T. The prediction of outcome in community care. Schizophr Res 1994;11(2):174-175.

Back to Chapter

published 2000