1. Alexander RC, Duda J, Garth D, Vogel W, Berrettini WH. Morphine and cocaine preference in inbred mice. Psychiatr Genet 1993;3:33–37.

2. Ambrosio EA, Goldberg SR, Elmer GI. Behavior genetic investigation of the relationship between innate locomotor activity and the acquisition of morphine self-administration behavior. Behav Pharmacol 1994;[in press].

3. Aston CE, Hill SY. Segregation analysis of alcoholism in families ascertained through a pair of male alcoholics. Am J Hum Genet 1990;46:879–887.

4. Belknap JK, Crabbe JC. Chromosome mapping of gene loci affecting morphine and amphetamine responses in the BXD recombinant inbred mice. In: Kalivas PW, Samson HH, eds. The neurobiology of drug and alcohol addiction. New York: The New York Academy of Sciences, 1992;311–323.

5. Belknap JK, O'Toole LA. Studies of genetic differences in response to opioid drugs. In: Harris RA, Crabbe JC, eds. The genetic basis of alcohol and drug actions. New York: Plenum Press, 1991;225–252.

6. Blum K, Noble EP, Sheridan PJ, et al. Allelic association of human dopamine D2 receptor gene in alcoholism. JAMA 1990;263:2055–2060.

7. Bolos AM, Dean M, Lucas-Derse S, Ramsburg M, Brown GL, Goldman D. Population and pedigree studies reveal a lack of association between the dopamine D2 receptor gene and alcoholism. JAMA 1990;264:3156–3160.

8. Cadoret RJ, O'Gorman T, Troughton E, Heywood E. An adoption study of genetic and environmental factors in drug abuse. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986;43:1131–1136.

9. Carmelli D, Swan G, Robinette D, Fabsitz R. Genetic influence on smoking: a study of male twins. N Engl J Med 1992;327:89–833.

10. Comings DE, MacMurray J, Johnson JP, et al. The dopamine D2 receptor gene: a genetic risk factor in polysubstance abuse. Alcohol Drug Depend 1993;[in press].

11. Copeland NG, Jenkins NA, Gilbert DJ, et al. A genetic linkage map of the mouse: current applications and future prospects. Science 1993;262:57–66.

12. Crabbe JC, Phillips TJ, Cunningham CL, Belknap JK. Determinants of ethanol reinforcement. In: Kalivas PW, Samson HH, eds. The neurobiology of drug and alcohol addiction, vol 654. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1992;302–310.

13. Croughan JL. The contribution of family studies to understanding drug abuse. In: Robbins L, ed. Studying drug abuse, vol. 6. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1985;93–116.

14. Cunningham CL, Niehus DR, Malott DH, Prather LK. Genetic differences in the rewarding and activating effects of morphine and ethanol. Psychopharmacology 1992;107:385–393.

15. Di Chiara G, Imperato A. Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988;85:5274–5278.

16. Devor EJ, Cloninger CR. Genetics of alcoholism. Annu Rev Genet 1989;23:19–36.

17. Elmer GI, Brockington A, Gorelick D, Goldberg SR, Rothman RB. Acute cocaine-induced locomotor activity and context-dependent sensitization in inbred mice. NIDA Research Monographs 1994;141:16.

18. Elmer GI, Pieper JO, Goldberg SR, George FR. Opioid operant self-administration, analgesia, stimulation and respiratory depression in m-deficient mice. Psychopharmacology 1994;[in press].

19. Falconer DS. Introduction to quantitative genetics. New York: Longman Scientific and Technical Publishers and John Wiley & Sons, 1989.

20. Fawzy FI, Coombs RH, Gerber B. Generational continuity in the use of substances: the impact of parental substance use on adolescent substance use. Addict Behav 1983;8:109–114.

21. Freed WJ, Crump S, Jeste DV. Genetic effects on PCP-induced stimulation in recombinant inbred strains of mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1984;21:159–162.

22. Gardner EL, Lowinson JH. Marijuana's interaction with brain reward systems: update 1991. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1991; 40:571–580.

23. Gelernter J, Goldman D, Risch N. The A1 allele at the D2 dopamine receptor gene and alcoholism: a reappraisal. JAMA 1993;269:1673–1677.

24. Gelernter J, Kranzler H, Satel S. No association between DRD2 alleles and cocaine abuse. Fifty-Fifth Annual Scientific Meeting, College on Problems of Drug Dependence, Inc., poster, June 16, 1993.

25. Gelernter J, O'Malley S, Risch N, et al. No association between an allele at the D2 dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) and alcoholism. JAMA 1991;266:1801–1807.

26. George FR, Goldberg SR. Genetic differences in response to cocaine. NIDA Res Monogr 1988;239–249.

27. George FR, Goldberg SR. Genetic approaches to the analysis of addiction. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1989;10:73–83.

28. Gfroerer J. Correlation between drug use by teenagers and drug use by older family members. Am J Drug Alcohol Abstr 1987;95–108.

29. Gilligan SB, Reich R, Cloninger CR. Etiologic heterogeneity in alcoholism. Genet Epidemiol 1987;4:395–414.

30. Glantz M, Pickens R. Vulnerability to drug abuse. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1992.

31. Goldberg J, Lyons MJ, Eisen SA, True WR, Tsuang M. Genetic influence on drug use: a preliminary analysis of 2674 Vietnam era veteran twins [Abstract]. Behav Genet Society 1993.

32. Hawkins JD, Catalano RF, Miller JY. Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychol Bull 1992;112:64–105.

33. Heath AC, Martin NG. Teenage alcohol use in the Australian twin register: genetic and determinants of starting to drink. Compr Psychiatry 1988;12:735–741.

34. Heath AC, Phil D, Martin NG. Genetic differences in psychomotor performance decrement after alcohol: a multivariate analysis. J Stud Alcohol 1992;53:262–271.

35. Helzer JE, Przybeck TR. Concurrence of alcoholism with other psychiatric disorders in the general population and its impact on treatment. J Stud Alcohol 1988;49:219–224.

36. Hill SY, Cloninger CR, Ayre FR. Independent familial transmission of alcoholism and opiate abuse. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1977;1:335–342.

37. Inayama M, Suzuki T, Misawa M, Meisch RA. Diazepam oral self-administration in Lewis and Fischer 344 inbred rat strains. Eur J Pharmacol 1991;183:1983.

38. Jaenisch R. Transgenic animals. Science 1988;240:1468–1474.

39. Kandel DB, Raveis VH. Cessation of illicit drug use in young adulthood. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989;46:109–116.

40. Khoury MJ, James LM. Population and familial relative risks of disease associated with environmental factors in the presence of gene–environment interaction. Am J Epidemiol 1993;137:1241–1250.

41. Luthar SS, Anton SF, Merikangas KR, Rounsaville BJ. Vulnerability to drug abuse among opioid addict's siblings: individual, familial, and peer influences. Compr Psychiatry 1992;33:190–196.

42. Luthar SS, Anton SF, Merikangas KR, Rounsaville BJ. Vulnerability to substance abuse and psychopathology among siblings of opioid abusers. J Nerv Ment Dis 1992;180:153–161.

43. Luthar SS, Rounsaville BJ. Substance misuse and comorbid psychopathology in a high-risk group: A study of siblings of cocaine misusers. Int J Addict 1993;28:415–434.

44. Merikangas KR. The genetic epidemiology of alcoholism. Psychol Med 1990;20:11–22.

45. Mirin SM, Weiss RD, Griffin ML, Michael JL. Psychopathology in drug abusers and their families. Compr Psychiatry 1991;32:36–51.

46. Moss HB, Yao JK, Maddock JM. Responses by sons of alcoholic fathers to alcoholic and placebo drinks: perceived mood, intoxication, and plasma prolactin. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1989;13:252–257.

47. Nader MA, Tatham TA, Barrett JE. Behavioral and pharmacological determinants of drug abuse. In: Kalivas PW, Samson HH, eds. The neurobiology of drug and alcohol addiction, vol 654. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1992;368–385.

48. Noble EP, Blum K, Khalsa ME, et al. D2 dopamine receptor gene alleles in treatment-seeking cocaine dependent caucasian subjects. Drug Alcohol Depend 1993;[in press].

49. Noble EP, Blum K, Ritchie T, Montgomery A, Sheridan PF. Allelic association of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with receptor-binding characteristics in alcoholism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:648–654.

50. O'Hara BF, Smith SS, Bird G, et al. Dopamine D2 receptor RFLPs, Haplotypes and their association with substance use in black and caucasian research volunteers. Hum Hered 1993;43:209–218.

51. Ott J. Analysis of human genetic linkage. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.

52. Parsian A, Todd RD, Devor EJ, et al. Alcoholism and alleles of the human D2 dopamine receptor locus. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:655–663.

53. Persico AM, O'Hara BF, Farmer S, Gysin R, Flanagan S, Uhl GR. Dopamine D2 receptor gene TaqI "A" locus map including A4 variant: relevance for alcoholism and drug abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend 1993;31:229–234.

54. Piazza PV, Deminiere JM, Le Moal M, Simon H. Factors that predict individual vulnerability to amphetamine self-administration. Science 1989;245:1511–1513.

55. Piazza PV, Deminiere JM, Le Moal M, Simon H. Stress- and pharmacologically-induced behavioral sensitization increases vulnerability to acquisition of amphetamine self-administration. Brain Res 1990;514:22–26.

56. Pickens RW, Svikis DS, McGue M, Lykken DT, Heston LL, Clayton PJ. Heterogeneity in the inheritance of alcoholism: a study of male and female twins. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:19–28.

57. Raveis VH, Kandel DB. Changes in drug behavior from the middle to the late twenties: initiation, persistence, and cessation of use. J Public Health 1987;77:607–611.

58. Regier DA, Farmer ME, Rae DS, et al. Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. JAMA 1990;264:2511–2518.

59. Rounsaville BJ, Kosten TR, Weissman MM, et al. Psychiatric disorders in relatives of probands with opiate addiction. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:33–42.

60. Satinder KP. Oral intake of morphine in selectively bred rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1977;7:43–49.

61. Schuckit MA. Biology of risk for alcoholism. In: Meltzer H, ed. Psychopharmacology: a third generation of progress, New York: Raven Press, 1987;1527–1533.

62. Seale TW. Genetic differences in response to cocaine and stimulant drugs. In: Crabbe JC, Harris RA, eds. The genetic basis of alcohol and drug actions. New York: Plenum Press, 1991;279–321.

63. Smith M. Genetics of human alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases. Adv Hum Genet 1986;15:249–290.

64. Smith SS, O'Hara BF, Persico AM, et al. Genetic vulnerability to drug abuse: the dopamine D2 receptor TaqI B1 RFLP is more frequent in polysubstance abusers. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49:723–727.

65. Uhl GR. Molecular and genetic studies of the targets of acute drug action, substrates for interindividual differences in vulnerability to substance abuse, and candidate mechanisms for addiction. NIDA Monogr 1993;[in press].

66. Uhl GR, Blum K, Smith SS. Substance abuse vulnerability and D2 receptor genes. Trends Neurosci 1993;16:83–88.

67. Uhl GR, Persico AM, Smith SS. Current excitement with D2 dopamine receptor gene alleles in substance abuse. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;49:157–160.