Caffeine — A Drug of Abuse?
R. R. Griffiths
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Department of Neurosciences
, Behavioral Biology Research Center
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Baltimore, Maryland 21224.
G. K. Mumford
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Behavioral Biology Research Center
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Baltimore, Maryland 21224.
REFERENCES
1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
2. Ammon HPT, Bieck PR, Mandalaz D, Verspohl EJ. Adaptation of blood pressure to continuous heavy coffee drinking in young volunteers. A double-blind crossover study. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1983;15:701-706.
3. Atkinson J, Enslen M. Self-administration of caffeine by the rat. Arzneimittelforschung 1976;26:2059-2061.
4. Austin GA. Perspectives on the history of psychoactive substance use. In: NIDA research issues, vol 24. DHEW publication (ADM) 79-810. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1979;50-66.
5. Beecher HK. Measurement of subjective responses: quantitative effects of drugs. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959.
6. Bickel WK, Hughes JR, DeGrandpre RJ, Higgins ST, Rizzuto P. Behavioral economics of drug self-administration. IV. The effects of response requirement on the consumption of and interaction between concurrently available coffee and cigarettes. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1992;107:211-216.
7. Bigelow GE, Griffiths RR, Liebson I. Experimental human drug self-administration: methodology and application to the study of sedative abuse. Pharmacol Rev 1976;27:523-531.
8. Bonnet MH, Arand DL. Caffeine use as a model of acute and chronic insomnia. Sleep 1992;15:526-536.
9. Boulenger JP, Uhde TW, Wolff EAI, Post RM. Increased sensitivity to caffeine in patients with panic disorders: preliminary evidence. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;41:1067-1071.
10. Bozarth MA, ed. Methods of assessing the reinforcing properties of abused drugs. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987.
11. Bozarth MA. An overview of assessing drug reinforcement. In: Bozarth MA, ed. Methods of assessing the reinforcing properties of abused drugs. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987;635-658.
12. Bridges-Webb C, Grounds M. Analgesic use and abuse: the role of caffeine. Med J Aust 1976;20:805.
13. Bruce MS, Lader M. Caffeine abstention in the management of anxiety disorders. Psychol Med 1989;19:211-214.
14. Chait LD. Factors influencing the subjective response to caffeine. Behav Pharmacol 1992;3:219-228.
15. Chait LD, Griffiths RR. Effects of caffeine on human cigarette smoking behavior and subjective response. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1983;34:612-622.
16. Charney DS, Galloway MP, Heninger GR. The effects of caffeine on plasma MHPG, subjective anxiety, autonomic symptoms and blood pressure in healthy humans. Life Sci 1984;35:135-144.
17. Charney DS, Heninger GR, Jatlow PI. Increased anxiogenic effects of caffeine in panic disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;42:233-243.
18. Christensen L, Miller J, Johnson D. Efficacy of caffeine versus expectancy in altering caffeine-related symptoms. J Gen Psychol 1991;118:5-12.
19. Collins E, Turner G. A suggestion for reducing the incidence of habitual analgesic consumption. Med J Aust 1973;1:863.
20. Collins RJ, Weeks JR, Cooper MM, Good PI, Russell RR. Prediction of abuse liability of drugs using IV self-administration by rats. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1984;82:6-13.
21. Colton T, Gosselin RE, Smith RP. The tolerance of coffee drinkers to caffeine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1968;9:31-39.
22. Couturier EGM, Hering R, Steiner TJ. Weekend attacks in migraine patients: caused by caffeine withdrawal? Cephalalgia 1992;12:99-100.
23. de Wit H. Preference procedures for testing the abuse liability of drugs in humans. Br J Addict 1991;86:1579-1586.
24. Denaro CP, Brown CR, Jacob P III, Benowitz NL. Effects of caffeine with repeated dosing. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1991;40: 273-278.
25. Deneau G, Yanagita T, Seevers MH. Self-administration of psychoactive substances by the monkey: a measure of psychological dependence. Psychopharmacologia 1969;16:30-48.
26. Dews PB. Caffeine. Annu Rev Nutr 1982;2:323-341.
27. Dreisbach RH, Pfeiffer C. Caffeine-withdrawal headache. J Lab Clin Med 1943;28:1212-1219.
28. Dworkin SI, Vrana SL, Broadbent J, Robinson JH. Comparing the reinforcing effects of nicotine, caffeine, methylpheindate and cocaine. Med Chem Res 1993;2:593-602.
29. Eddy NB, Downs AW. Tolerance and cross-tolerance in the human subject to the diuretic effect of caffeine, theobromine and theophylline. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1928;33:167-174.
30. Evans SM, Griffiths RR. Dose-related caffeine discrimination in normal volunteers: individual differences in subjective effects and self-reported cues. Behav Pharmacol 1991;2:345-356.
31. Evans SM, Griffiths RR. Low-dose caffeine physical dependence in normal subjects: dose-related effects. In: Harris LS, ed. Problems of drug dependence 1990. NIDA Research Monograph No. 105, DHHS Publication No. (ADM) 91-1753. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1991;446.
32. Evans SM, Griffiths RR. Caffeine tolerance and choice in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1992;108:51-59.
33. Fennelly M, Galletly DC, Puride GI. Is caffeine withdrawal the mechanism of postoperative headache? Anesth Analg 1991;72: 449-453.
34. Foltin RW, Fischman MW. Assessment of abuse liability of stimulant drugs in humans: a methodological survey. Drug Alcohol Depend 1991;28:3-48.
35. Galletly DC, Fennelly M, Whitwam JG. Does caffeine withdrawal contribute to postanaesthetic morbidity? Lancet 1989;June 10:1335.
36. Garattini S. Caffeine, coffee, and health. New York: Raven Press, 1993.
37. Gilbert RM. Caffeine as a drug of abuse. In: Gibbins RJ, Israel Y, Kalant H, Popham RE, Schmidt W, Smart RG, eds. Research advances in alcohol and drug problems, vol 3. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976;49-176.
38. Gilbert RM. Caffeine consumption. In: Spiller GA, ed. The methylxanthine beverages and foods: chemistry, consumption, and health effects. New York: Alan R Liss, 1984;185-213.
39. Gilbert RM. Betel-nut chewing in Toronto. In: The Journal. Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation of Ontario, April 1, 1986;5.
40. Goldberg SR, Henningfield JE. Reinforcing effects of nicotine in humans and experimental animals responding under intermittent schedules of IV drug injection. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1988;30:227-234.
41. Goldstein A, Kaizer S. Psychotropic effects of caffeine in man. III. A questionnaire survey of coffee drinking and its effects in a group of housewives. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1969;10:477-488.
42. Goldstein A, Kaizer S, Warren R. Psychotropic effects of caffeine in man. II. Alertness, psychomotor coordination, and mood. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1965;150:146-151.
43. Goldstein A, Kaizer S, Whitby O. Psychotropic effects of caffeine in man. IV. Quantitative and qualitative differences associated with habituation to coffee. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1969;10:489-497.
44. Graham DM. Caffeine--its identity, dietary sources, intake and biological effects. Nutr Rev 1978;36:97-102.
45. Graham HN. Tea: the plant and its manufacture; chemistry and consumption of the beverage. In: Spiller GA, ed. The methylxanthine beverages and foods: chemistry, consumption and health effects. New York: Alan R Liss, 1984;29-74.
46. Greden JF. Anxiety or caffeinism: a diagnostic dilemma. Am J Psychiatry 1974;131:1089-1092.
47. Greden JF, Walters A. Caffeine. In: Lowinson JH, Ruiz P, Millman RB, Langrod JG, eds. Substance abuse--a comprehensive textbook. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1992;357-370.
48. Griffiths RR, Bigelow GE, Henningfield JE. Similarities in animal and human drug-taking behavior. In: Mello NK, ed. Advances in substance abuse, vol 1. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1980;1-90.
49. Griffiths RR, Bigelow GE, Liebson IA. Human coffee drinking: reinforcing and physical dependence producing effects of caffeine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1986;239:416-425.
50. Griffiths RR, Bigelow GE, Liebson IA. Reinforcing effects of caffeine in coffee and capsules. J Exp Anal Behav 1989;52:127-140.
51. Griffiths RR, Bigelow GE, Liebson IA, O'Keeffe M, O'Leary D, Russ N. Human coffee drinking: manipulation of concentration and caffeine dose. J Exp Anal Behav 1986;45:133-148.
52. Griffiths RR, Brady JV, Bradford LD. Predicting the abuse liability of drugs with animal drug self-administration procedures: psychomotor stimulants and hallucinogens. In: Thompson T, Dews PB, eds. Advances in behavioral pharmacology vol 2. New York: Academic Press, 1979;163-208.
53. Griffiths RR, Evans SM, Heishman SJ, Preston KL, Sannerud CA, Wolf B, Woodson PP. Low-dose caffeine discrimination in humans. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1990;252:970-978.
54. Griffiths RR, Evans SM, Heishman SJ, Preston KL, Sannerud CA, Wolf B, Woodson PP. Low-dose caffeine physical dependence in humans. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1990;255:1123-1132.
55. Griffiths RR, Lamb RJ, Ator NA, Roache JD, Brady JV. Relative abuse liability of triazolam: experimental assessment in animals and humans. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1985;9:133-151.
56. Griffiths RR, Woodson PP. Caffeine physical dependence: A review of human and laboratory animal studies. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1988;94:437-451.
57. Griffiths RR, Woodson PP. Reinforcing effects of caffeine in humans. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1988;246:21-29.
58. Guelliot O. Du cafeisme chronique. Union Med Sci Nordest 1885;9:221-240.
59. Henningfield JE, Goldberg SR. Nicotine as a reinforcer in human subjects and laboratory animals. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1983;19:989-992.
60. Henningfield JE, Lukas SE, Bigelow GE. Human studies of drugs as reinforcers. In: Goldberg SR, Stolerman IP, eds. Behavioral analysis of drug dependence. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1986;69-122.
61. Hoffmeister F, Wuttke W. Self-administration of acetylsalicylic acid and combinations with codeine and caffeine in rhesus monkeys. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1973;186:266-275.
62. Holtzman SG, Finn IB. Tolerance to behavioral effects of caffeine in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1988;29:411-418.
63. Hughes JR. Clinical importance of caffeine withdrawal. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1160-1161.
64. Hughes JR, Amori G, Hatsukami DK. A survey of physician advice about caffeine. J Subst Abuse 1988;1:67-70.
65. Hughes JR, Higgins ST, Bickel WK, Hunt WK, Fenwick JW, Gulliver SB, Mireault GC. Caffeine self-administration, withdrawal, and adverse effects among coffee drinkers. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:611-617.
66. Hughes JR, Hunt WK, Higgins ST, Bickel WK, Fenwick JW, Pepper SL. Effect of dose on the ability of caffeine to serve as a reinforcer in humans. Behav Pharmacol 1992;3:211-218.
67. Hughes JR, Oliveto AH, Bickel WK, Higgins ST, Badger GJ. Caffeine self-administration and withdrawal: Incidence, individual differences and interrelationships. Drug Alcohol Depend 1993;32: 239-246.
68. Hughes JR, Oliveto AH, Bickel WK, Higgins ST, Valliere W. Caffeine self-administration and withdrawal in soda drinkers. J Addict Dis 1992;4:178.
69. Hughes JR, Oliveto AH, Helzer JE, Bickel WK, Higgins ST. Indications of caffeine dependence in a population-based sample. In: Harris LS, ed. Problems of drug dependence, 1992. NIDA Research Monograph No. 132, NIH Publication No. 93-3505. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1993;194.
70. Hughes JR, Oliveto AH, Helzer JE, Higgins ST, Bickel WK. Should caffeine abuse, dependence, or withdrawal be added to DSM-IV and ICD-10? Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:33-40.
71. James JE. Caffeine and health. New York: Academic Press, 1991.
72. Jaffe JH, Jaffe FK. Historical perspectives on the use of subjective effects measures in assessing the abuse potential of drugs. In: Fischman MW, Mello NK, eds. Testing for abuse liability of drugs. NIDA Research Monograph No. 105, DHHS Publication No. (ADM) 89-1613. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1989;43-72.
73. Kalant H, LeBlanc AE, Gibbins RJ. Tolerance to, and dependence on, some nonopiate psychotropic drugs. Pharmacol Rev 1971;3: 135-191.
74. Kozlowski LT. Effect of caffeine on coffee drinking. Nature 1976;264:354-355.
75. Leathwood PD, Pollet P. Diet-induced mood changes in normal populations. J Psychiatr Res 1983;17:147-154.
76. Lee MA, Cameron OG, Greden JF. Anxiety and caffeine consumption in people with anxiety disorders. Psychiatry Res 1985;15: 211-217.
77. Lee MA, Flegel P, Greden JF, Cameron OG. Anxiogenic effects of caffeine on panic and depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry 1988;145:632-635.
78. Lieberman HR, Wurtman RJ, Emde GG, Coviella ILG. The effects of caffeine and aspirin on mood and performance. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1987;7:315-320.
79. Lieberman HR, Wurtman RJ, Emde GG, Roberts C, Coviella ILG. The effects of low doses of caffeine on human performance and mood. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1987;92:308-312.
80. Loke WH. Effects of caffeine on mood and memory. Physiol Behav 1988;44:367-372.
81. Loke WH, Hinrichs JV, Ghoneim MM. Caffeine and diazepam: separate and combined effects on mood, memory, and psychomotor performance. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1985;87:344-350.
82. Loke WH, Meliska CJ. Effects of caffeine use and ingestion on a protracted visual vigilance task. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1984;84:54-57.
83. Mattila J, Seppala T, Mattila MJ. Anxiogenic effect of yohimbine in healthy subjects: comparison with caffeine and antagonism by clonidine and diazepam. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1988;3:215-229.
84. McGowan JD, Altman RE, Kanto WP. Neonatal withdrawal symptoms after chronic maternal ingestion of caffeine. South Med J 1988;81:1092.
85. Mumford GK, Evans SM, Kaminski BJ, Preston KL, Sannerud CA, Silverman K, Griffiths RR. Discriminative stimulus and subjective effects of theobromine and caffeine in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1994{ewc MVIMG, MVIMAGE,!infinity.bmp} press.
86. Nuotto E, Mattila MJ, Seppala T, Konno K. Coffee and caffeine and alcohol effects on psychomotor function. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1982;31:68-76.
87. Oliveto AH, Bickel WK, Hughes JR, Terry SY, Higgins ST, Badger GJ. Pharmacological specificity of the caffeine discriminative stimulus in humans: effects of theophylline, methylphenidate and buspirone. Behav Pharmacol 1993;4:237-246.
88. Oliveto AH, Hughes JR, Higgins ST, Bickel WK, Pepper SL, Shea PJ, Fenwick JW. Forced-choice versus free-choice procedures: caffeine self-administration in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1992;109:85-91.
89. Oliveto AH, Hughes JR, Pepper SL, Bickel WK, Higgins ST. Low doses of caffeine can serve as reinforcers in humans. In: Harris LS, ed. Problems of drug dependence, 1990. NIDA Research Monograph No. 105, DHHS Publication No. (ADM) 91-1753. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1991;442.
90. Podboy J, Malloy W. Caffeine reduction and behavior changes in the severely retarded. Ment Retard 1977;15:40.
91. Rapoport JL, Jensvold M, Elkins R, Buchsbaum MS, Weingartner H, Ludlow C, Zahn TP, Berg CJ, Neims AH. Behavioral and cognitive effects of caffeine in boys and adult males. J Nerv Ment Dis 1981;169:726-732.
92. Rizzo AA, Stamps LE, Fehr LA. Effects of caffeine withdrawal on motor performance and heart rate changes. Int J Psychophysiol 1988;6:9-14.
93. Robertson D, Wade D, Workman R, Woosley RL, Oates JA. Tolerance to the humoral and hemodynamic effects of caffeine in man. J Clin Invest 1981;67:1111-1117.
94. Robinson JH, Pritchard WS. The meaning of addiction: reply to West. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1992;108:411-416.
95. Robinson JH, Pritchard WS. The role of nicotine in tobacco use. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1992;108:397-407.
96. Schuster CR, Woods JH, Seevers MH. Self-administration of control stimulants by the monkey. In: Sjoqvist F, Tottie M, eds. Abuse of central stimulants. New York: Raven Press, 1969;339-347.
97. Shi J, Benowitz NL, Denaro CP, Sheiner LB. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling of caffeine: tolerance to pressor effects. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1993;53:6-14.
98. Silverman K, Evans SM, Strain EC, Griffiths RR. Withdrawal syndrome after the double-blind cessation of caffeine consumption. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1109-1114.
99. Silverman K, Griffiths RR. Low-dose caffeine discrimination and self-reported mood effects in normal volunteers. J Exp Anal Behav 1992;57:91-107.
100. Silverman K, Mumford GK, Griffiths RR. Enhancing caffeine reinforcement by behavioral requirements following drug ingestion. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1994;114:424-432.
101. Spiller GA. The methylxanthine beverages and foods: chemistry, consumption, and health effects. New York: Alan R Liss, 1984.
102. Stern KN, Chait LD, Johanson CE. Reinforcing and subjective effects of caffeine in normal human volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1989;98:81-88.
103. Stringer KA, Watson WA. Caffeine withdrawal symptoms. Am J Emerg 1987;5:469.
104. Uhde TW. Caffeine-induced anxiety: an ideal chemical model of panic disorder? In: Asnis GM, van Praag HM, eds. Einstein monograph series in psychiatry. 1994; in press.
105. van Dusseldorp M, Katan MB. Headache caused by caffeine withdrawal among moderate coffee drinkers switched from ordinary to decaffeinated coffee: a 12 week double blind trial. Br Med J 1990;300:1558-1559.
106. Weiss B, Laties VG. Enhancement of human performance by caffeine and the amphetamines. Pharmacol Rev 1962;14:1-36.
107. West R. Nicotine addiction: a re-analysis of the arguments. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1992;108:408-410.
108. Winsor AL, Strongin EI. A study of the development of tolerance for caffeinated beverages. J Exp Psychol 1933;16:725-744.
109. World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders, clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1992.
110. Yanagita T. Self-administration studies on various dependence-producing agents in monkeys. Univ Michigan Med Center J 1970;36:216-224.
111. Zwyghuizen-Doorenbos A, Roehrs TA, Lipschutz L, Timms V, Roth T. Effects of caffeine on alertness. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1990;100:36-39.
published 2000