1. Matthyse S. Antipsychotic drug actions: a clue to the neuropathology of schizophrenia? Fed Proc 1973;32:200–205.

2. Creese I, Burt DR, Snyder SH. DA receptor binding predicts clinical and pharmacological potencies of antischizophrenic drugs. Science 1976;192:481–483.

3. Bunzow JR, Van Tol HHM, Grandy DK, et al. Cloning and expression of a rat D2 DA receptor cDNA. Nature 1988;336:783–787.

4. Sanshara RK, Hong Chang G, O'Dowd BF, et al. Cloning of the gene for a human dopamine D5 receptor with higher affinity for dopamine than D1. Nature 1991;350:614–619.

5. Sunahara RK, Guan HC, O'Dowd BF, et al. Cloning of the gene for a human dopamine D5 receptor with higher affinity for dopamine than D1. Nature 1991;18:350(6319), 614–619.

6. Robakis NK, Mohamadi M, Fu DY, Sambamurti K, Refolo LM. Human retina D2 receptor cDNA's have multiple polyadenylation sites and differ from a pituitary cloae at the 5¢ non-coding region. Nucleic Acids Res 1990;18:1299.

7. Todd RD, Khurana TS, Sajovic P, Stone KR, O'Malley KL. Cloning of ligand-specific cell lines via gene transfer: identification of a D2 dopamine receptor subtype. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989;86: 10134–10138.

8. Landwehrmeyer-B, Mengod G, Palacios JM. Dopamine D3 receptor mRNA and binding sites in human brain. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1993;18:(1–2):187–192.

9. Schmauss C, Haroutunian V, Davis KL, Davidson M. Selective loss of dopamine D3-type receptor mRNA expression in parietal and motor cortices of patients with chronic schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993;90:8942–8946.

10. Wiese C, Lannfelt L, Kristbjarnarson H, et al. No evidence of linkage between schizophrenia and D3 dopamine receptor gene locus in Icelandic pedigrees. Psychiatry Res 1993;46(1),69–78.

11. Sokoloff P, Giros B, Martres MP, et al. Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel dopamine receptor (D3) as a target for neuroleptics. Nature 1990;347:146–151.

12. Van Tol HHM, Bunzow IJ, Hong-Chang G, et al. Cloning of the gene for a human dopamine D4 receptor with high affinity for the antipsychotic clozapine. Nature 1991;350:610–614.

13. Seeman P. Dopamine receptor sequences. Therapeutic levels of neuroleptics occupy D2 receptors, clozapine occupies D4. Neuropsychopharmacology 1992;7:4,261–284.

14. Pycock CJ, Kerwin RW, Carter CJ. Effect of lesion of cortical DA terminals on subcortical DA receptors in rats. Nature 1980;286:74–77.

15. Haroutunian V, Knott P, Davis KL. Effects of mesocortical DAergic lesions upon subcortical DAergic function. Psychopharmacol Bull 1988;24(3):341–344.

16. Roskin DL, Deutch AY, Roth RH. Alterations in subcortical dopaminergic function following dopamine depletion in the medial prefrontal cortex. Soc Neurosci Abstr 1987;13:560.

17. Leccesse AP, Lyness WH. Lesions of dopamine neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex: effects on self-administration of amphetamine and dopamine synthesis in the brain of the rat. Neuropharmacology 1987;26:1303–1308.

18. Glowinski J, Tassin JP, Thierru AM. The mesocortical–prefrontal DAergic neurons. Trends Neurosci 1984;7:415–418.

19. Jaskiw GE, Karoum F, Freed WJ, et al. Effect of medial prefrontal cortex lesions on dopamine turnover and dopamine agonism. Soc Neurosci Abstr 1987;13:599.

20. Deutch AY. The regulation of subcortical dopamine systems by the prefrontal cortex: interactions of central dopamine systems and the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. J Neural Trans 1992;36(Suppl):61–89.

21. Grace AA. Commentary. Phasis versus tonic dopamine release and the modulation of dopamine system responsivity: a hypothesis for the etiology of schizophrenia. Neuroscience 1991;41:1, 1–24.

22. Kendler KS, Heninger GR, Roth RH. Influence of dopamine agonists on plasma and brain levels of homovanillic acid. Life Sci 1982;30:2063–2069.

23. Davidson M, Miklos F, Losonczy F, et al. Effects of debrisoquin and haloperidol on plasma homovanillic acid concentration in schizophrenic patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 1987;1:17–23.

24. Kopin I, Bankiewicz KS, Harvey-White J. Assessment of brain dopamine metabolism from plasma HVA and MHPG during debrisoquin treatment: validation in monkeys treated with MPTP. Neuropsychopharmacology 1988;1:119–126.

25. Kendler KS, Heninger GR, Roth RH. Brain contribution to the haloperidol-induced increase in plasma homovanillic acid. Eur J Pharmacol 1981;71:321–326.

26. Davila R, Zumarraga M, Perea K, Andia I. Elevation of plasma homovanillic acid level can be detected within four hours after initiation of haloperidol treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987; 44:837–838.

27. Maas JW, Contreras SA, Miller AL, et al. Studies of catecholamine metabolism in schizophrenia/psychosis—I. Neuropsychopharmacology 1993;8(2):97–109.

28. Lewis DA. The catecholaminergic innervation of primate prefrontal cortex. J Neural Transm 1992;36:179–200.

29. Morrison JH, Hof PR, Janssen W. Quantitive neuroanatomic analyses of cerebral cortex in rhesus monkeys from different rearing conditions. Soc Neurosci Abstr 1990;16:789.

30. Gur RE, Pearlson GD. Neuroimaging in schizophrenia research. Schizophr Bull 1993;19:337–353.

31. Andreason NC, Rezai K, Alliger R, et al. Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naive patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia: assessment with xenon 133 single-photon emission computed tomography and the tower of London. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;12:943–958.

32. Weinberger DR, Berman KF, Illowsky BP. Physiological dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. III. A new cohort and evidence for a monoaminergic mechanism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45(7):609–615.

33. Wolkin A, Sanfilipo M, Wolf AP, Angrist B, Brodle JD, Rotrosen J. Negative symptoms and hypofrontality in chronic schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;49:959–965.

34. Buchsbaum MS, Haier RJ, Potkin SG, et al. Frontostriatal disorder of cerebral metabolism in never-medicated schizophrenics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;12:935–942.

35. Kahn RS, Davidson M, Siever L, Gabriel S, Apter S, Davis KL. Serotonin function and treatment response to clozapine in schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1337–1342.

36. Daniel DG, Weinberger DR, Jones DW, et al. The effect of amphetamine on regional cerebral blood flow during cognitive activation in schizophrenia. J Neurosci 1991;11(7):1907–1917.

37. Daniel DG, Berman KF, Weinberger DR. The effect of apomorphine on regional cerebral blood flow in schizophrenia. J Neuropsychiatry 1989;1:377–384.

38. Meltzer HY. Clinical studies on the mechanism of action of clozapine: the dopamine–serotonin hypothesis of schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 1989;99:S18–S27.

39. Krystal JH, Seibyl JP, Erdos J, et al. Neuroleptic augmentation with medications enhancing dopaminergic function: focus on mazindol. In: ACNP proceedings, 1992;17.

40. Breier A, Buchanan RW, Elkashef A, Munson RC, Kirkpatrick B, Gellad F. Brain morphology and schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;49:921–926.

41. Wong DF, Wagner HN, Tune LE, et al. Positron emission tomography reveals elevated D2 DA receptors in drug-naive schizophrenics. Science 1986;234:1558–1563.

42. Farde L, Halldin C, Stone-Elander S, Sedvall G. PET analysis of human dopamine receptors using 11C-SCH23390 and 11C-raclopride. Psychopharmacology 1987;92:278–284.

43. Farde L, Wiesel FA, Stone-Elander S, et al. D2 dopamine receptors in neuroleptic-naive schizophrenic patients: a positron emission tomography study with [11c]raclopride. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990;47:213–219.

44. Martinot JL, Peron-Magnan P, Huret JD, et al. Striatal D2 dopaminergic receptors with positron emission tomography and 76Br-bromospiperone in untreated schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 1989;147:44–50.

45. Davila R, Manero E, Zumarraga-Andia I, Andia I, Schweitzer JW, Friedhoff AJ. Plasma homovanillic acid as a predictor of response to neuroleptics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:564–567.

46. Pickar D, Labarca R, Linnoila M, et al. Neuroleptic induced decrease in plasma homovanillic acid and antipsychotic activity in schizophrenic patients. Science 1984;225:954–956.

47. Sharma R, Javaid JI, Janicak P, Faull K, Comaty J, Davis JM. Plasma and CSF HVA before and after pharmacological treatment. Psychiatry Res 1989;28:97–104.

48. Bowers MB, Swigar ME, Jatlow PI, et al. Plasma catecholamine metabolism and early response to haloperidol. J Clin Psychiatry 1984;45:284–251.

49. Chang WH, Chen TY, Lin SK, et al. Plasma catecholamine metabolites in schizophrenics: evidence for the two-subtype concept. Biol Psychiatry 1990;27:510–518.

50. Davidson M, Kahn RS, Knott P, et al. The effect of neuroleptic treatment on plasma homovanillic acid concentrations and schizophrenic symptoms, Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:910–913.

51. Wolkowitz OM, Breier A, Doran A, et al. Alprazolam augmentation of the antipsychotic effect of flophenazine in schizophrenic patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:664–672.

52. Bowers M, Swiger ME, Jatlow PI, et al. Early neuroleptic response. Clinical profiles and catecholamine metabolites. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1987;7:83–86.

53. Van Putten T, Marder S, Aravagiri M, Chabert N, Mintz J. Plasma homovanillic acid as a predictor of response to flephenazine treatment. Psychopharmacol Bull 1989;89–91.

54. Mazure CM, Nelson G, Jatlow PI, Bowers MB. Plasma free homovanillic acid (HVA) as a predictor of clinical response in acute psychosis. Biol Psychiatry 1991;30:475–482.

55. Javaid JI, Sharma RP, et al. Plasma HVA in psychiatric patients; Longitudinal studies. Psychopharmacol Bull 1990;26:361–365.

56. Pickar D, Labarca R, Doran A, et al. Longitudinal measurement of plasma homovanillic acid levels in schizophrenic patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986;43:669–676.

57. Davidson M, Kahn RS, Warne P, et al. Changes in plasma homovanillic acid concentrations in schizophrenic patients following neuroleptic discontinuation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:73–76.

58. Glazer WM, Bowers MB, Charney DS, et al. The effect of neuroleptic discontinuation on psychopathology, involuntary movements, and biochemical measures in patients with persistent tardive dyskenesia. Biol Psychiatry 1989;26:224–233.

59. Chiodo LA, Bunney BS. Possible mechanisms by which repeated clozapine administration differentially affects the activity of two subpopulations of midbrain dopamine neurons. J Neurosci 1985; 5:2539–2544.

60. Pickar D, Owen RR, Litman RE, Konicki PE, Gutierrez R, Rapaport MH. Clinical and biological response to clozapine in patients with schizophrenia: crossover comparison with fluphenazine. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;49:345–353.

61. Davis KL, Davidson M, Mohs RC, et al. Plasma homovanillic acid concentration and the severity of schizophrenic illness. Science 1985;227:1601–1602.

62. Davidson M, Davis KL. A comparison of plasma homovanillic acid concentrations in schizophrenics and normal controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:561–563.

63. Kirch DG, Jaskiw G, Linnoila M, Weinberger DR, Wyatt RJ. Plasma amine metabolites before and after withdrawal from neuroleptic treatment in chronic schizophrenic inpatients. Psychiatry Res 1988;25:233–242.

64. Toru M, Watanabe S, Shibuya H, et al. Neurotransmitters, receptors and neuropeptides in post-mortem brains of chronic schizophrenic patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1988;78:121–137.

65. Mackay AVP, Iversen LL, Rossor M, et al. Increased brain DA and DA receptors in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:991–997.

66. Owen F, Crow TJ, Poulter M, et al. Increased DA-receptor sensitivity in schizophrenia. Lancet 1978;29:223–225.

67. Reynolds GP. Increased concentrations and lateral asymmetry of amygdala DA in schizophrenia. Nature 1983;305:527–529.

68. Seeman P, Bzowej NH, Guan HC, et al. Human brain D1 and D2 DA receptors in schizophrenia, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases. Neuropsychopharmacology 1987;1:5–15.

69. Crow TJ, Johnstone EC, Longden AJ, et al. Dopaminergic mechanisms in schizophrenia: the antipsychotic effect and the disease process. Life Sci 1978;23:563–568.

70. Cross AJ, Corw TJ, Owen F. 3H-flupenthixol binding in post-mortem brains of schizophrenics: evidence for a selective increase in dopamine D2 receptors. Psychopharmacology 1981;74:122–124.

71. Mita T, Hanada S, Nishino N. Decreased serotonin S2 and increased dopamine D2 receptors in chronic schizophrenics. Biol Psychiatry 1986;21:1407–1414.

72. Hess EJ, Bracha S, Kleinman JE, Creese I. Dopamine receptor subtype imbalance in schizophrenia. Life Sci 1987;40:1487–1497.

73. Seeman P, Guan H-C, Van Tol HHM. Dopamine D4 receptors elevated in schizophrenia. Nature 1993;365:441–445.

74. Dauphinais D, DeLisi LE, Crow TJ, et al. Reduction in temporal lobe size in siblings with schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 1990;35:137–147.

75. Bogerts B, Ashtari M, Degreef G, Alvir Jose Ma J, Bilder RM, Lieberman JA. Reduced temporal limbic structure volumes on magnetic resonance images in first episode schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 1990;35:1–13.

76. Barta PE, Pearlson GD, Powers RE, Richards SS, Tune LE. Auditory hallucinations and smaller superior temporal gyral volume in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147;11:1457–1462.

77. Shenton ME, Kikinis R, Jolesz FA, et al. Abnormalities of the left temporal lobe and thought disorder in schizophrenia. N Engl J Med 1992;327:604–612.

78. Penfield W, Perot P. The brain's record of auditory and visual experience. A final summary and discussion. Brain 1963;86,4:596–697.

79. Roberts GW, et al. A "mock up" of schizophrenia: temporal lobe epilepsy and schizophrenia-like psychosis. Biol Psychiatry 1990; 28:127–143.

80. Joyce JN. The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: limbic interactions with serotonin and norepinephrine. Psychopharmacology 1993;112:16–34.

81. Lipska BK, Jaskin GE, Chrapusta S, Karoum F, Weinberger DR. Ibotenic acid lesion of the ventral hippocampus differentially affects dopamine and its metabolites in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex in the rat. Brain Res 1992;585:1–6.

82. Myers RE, Swett C, Miller M. Loss of social group affinity following prefrontal lesions in free-ranging macaques. Brain Res 1973;64:257–269.

83. Mesulam M-M. Frontal cortex and behavior [Editorial]. Ann Neurol 1986;19:320–325.

84. Davidson M, Harvey PD, Bergman PL, et al. Effects of the D1 agonist SKF 38393 combined with haloperidol in schizophrenic patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990;47:190–191.

85. Brozoski TJ, Brown RM, Rosvold HE, Goldman PS. Cognitive deficit caused by regional depletion of dopamine in prefrontal cortex of rhesus monkey. Science 1979;205:929–931.

86. Sawaguchi T, Goldman-Rakic PS. D1 dopamine receptors in prefrontal cortex: involvement in working memory. Science 1991; 251:947–950.

87. Bannon ML, Roth RH. Pharmacology of mesocortical dopamine neurons. Pharmacol Rev 1983;35:53–68.

88. Jaskiw GE, Weinberger DR, Crawley JN. Microinjection of apomorphine into the prefrontal cortex of the rat reduces dopamine metabolite concentrations in microdialysate from the caudate nucleus. Biol Psychiatry 1991;29:703–706.

89. Kahn RS, Davidson M. Serotonin dopamine and their interaction in schizophrenia: an editorial. Psychopharmacology 1993;112: 1–4.

90. Agren H, Mefford IN, Rudorfer MV, Linnoila M, Potter WZ. Interacting neurotransmitter systems. A non-experimental approach to the 5HIAA–HVA correlation in human CSF. J Psychiatry Res 1986;20:175–193.

91. Jibson M, Faull KF, Csernansky JG. Intercorrelations among monoamine metabolite concentrations in human lumbar CSF are not due to a shared acid transport system. Biol Psychiatry 1990;28:595–602.

92. Gelders Y, Bussche GV, Reyntjens A, Janssen JAP. Serotonin S2 receptor blockers in the treatment of chronic schizophrenia. Clin Neuropharmacol 1986;9:325–327.

93. Hagan RM, Kilpatrick GL, Tyers MB. Interactions between 5HT3 receptors and cerebral dopamine function: implications for the treatment of schizophrenia and psychoactive substance abuse. Psychopharmacology 1993;112:68–75.

94. Palfreyman MG, Schmidt CJ, Sorensen SM. Electrophysiological, biochemical and behavioral evidence for 5HT2 and 5HT3 mediated control of dopaminergic function. Psychopharmacology 1993;112: 60–67.

95. Bowers MB, Swigar ME, Jatlow PI, Hoffman J. Plasma catecholamine metabolites and treatment response at neuroleptic steady state. Biol Psychiatry 1989;25:734–738.

96. Maas JW, Contreras SA, Miller AL, et al. Dopamine metabolism and disposition in schizophrenic patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:553–560.

97. Markianos M, Botsis A, Arvanitis Y. Biogenic amine metabolites in plasma of drug-naive schizophrenic patients: associations with symptomatology. Biol Psychiatry 1992;32:288–292.