1. Akil H, Watson SJ, Young EA, Lewis ME, Kachaturian H, Walker JM. Endogenous opioids: biology and function. Annu Rev Neurosci 1984;7:223–255.

2. Akil H, Haskett RF, Young EA, et al. Multiple HPA profiles in endogenous depression: effect of age and sex on cortisol and beta-endorphin. Biol Psychiatry 1993;33:73–85.

3. Alexopoulos GS, Young RC, Kocsis JH, Brockner N, Butler TA, Stokes PE. Dexamethasone suppression test in geriatric depression. Biol Psychiatry 1984;19:1567–1571.

4. Alonso G, Szafarczyk A, Balmefrezol M. Immunocytochemical evidence for stimulatory control by the ventral noradrenergic bundle of parvocellular neurons of the paraventricular nucleus secreting corticotropin releasing hormone and vasopressin in rats. Brain Res 1986;397:297–307.

5. Amsterdam JD, Winokur A, Abelman E, Lucki I, Richels K. Co-syntropin (ACTH alpha 1-24) stimulation test in depressed patients and healthy subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1983;140:907–909.

6. Amsterdam JD, Maislin G, Winokur A, Kling M, Gold P. Pituitary and adrenocortical responses to ovine corticotropin releasing hormone in depressed patients and healthy volunteers. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44:775–781.

7. Amsterdam JD, Marinelli DL, Arger P, Winokur A. Assessment of adrenal gland volume by computed tomography in depressed patients and healthy volunteers: a pilot study. Psychiatry Res 1987; 21:189–198.

8. Antoni FA. Hypothalamic control of adrenocorticotropin secretion: advances since the discovery of 41-residue CRF. Endocrine Rev 1986;7:351–378.

9. Arriza JL, Weinberger C, Cerelli G, et al. Cloning of the human mineralocorticoid receptor complementary DNA; structural and functional kinship with the glucocorticoid receptor. Science 1987; 237:268–275.

10. Autelitano DJ, Blum M, Lopingco M, Allen RG, Roberts JL. CRF differentially regulates anterior and intermediate pituitary lobe proopiomelanocortin gene transcription, nuclear precursor RNA and mature mRNA in vivo. Neuroendocrinology 1990;51:123–130.

11. Beato M. Gene regulation by steroid hormones. Cell 1989;56:335–344.

12. Beaulieu S, DiPoalo T, Barden N. Control of ACTH secretion by the central nucleus of the amygdala: implications of the serotinergic system and its relevance to the glucocorticoid delayed negative feedback mechanism. Neuroendocrinology 1986;44:247–254.

13. Caamaño CA, Morano MI, Patel PD, Watson SJ, Akil HA. Bacterially expressed mineralocorticoid receptor is associated in vitro with the 90-kDA heat shock protein and shows typical hormone- and DNA-binding characteristics. Biochemistry 1993;32:8589–8595.

14. Cannon W. The wisdom of the body. New York: Norton; 1932.

15. Carroll BJ, Curtis GC, Mendels J. Neuroendocrine regulation in depression I. Limbic system-adrenocortical dysfunction. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976;33:1039–1044.

16. Carroll BJ, Feinberg M, Greden JF. A specific laboratory test for the diagnosis of melancholia: standardization, validation and clinical utility. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1981;38:15–22.

17. Cascio CS, Shinsako J, Dallman MF. The suprachiasmatic nuclei stimulate evening ACTH secretion in the rat. Brain Res 1987; 423:173–178.

18. Coover GD, Goldman L, Levine S. Plasma corticosterone levels during extinction of a lever-press response in hippocampectomized rats. Physiol Behav 1971;7:727–732.

19. Cullinan WE, Herman JP, Watson SJ. Ventral subicular interaction with the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus: evidence for a relay in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. J Comp Neurol 1993; 332:1–20.

20. Cunningham ETJ, Bohn MC, Sawchenko PE. Organization of adrenergic inputs to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1990;292:651–657.

21. Dallman MF, Akana SF, Scribner KA, et al. Stress, feedback and facilitation in the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. J Neuroendocrinol 1991;4:517–526.

22. Dalman FC, Bresnick EH, Patel PD, Perdew GH, Watson SP, Pratt WB. Direct evidence that the glucocorticoid receptor binds to hsp90 at or near termination of receptor translation in vitro. J Biol Chem 1989;264:19815–19821.

23. Dalman FC, Scherrer LC, Taylor LP, Akil H, Pratt WB. Localization of the hsp90 binding site within the hormone binding domain of the glucocorticoid receptor by peptide competition. J Biol Chem 1991;266:3482–3490.

24. Darlington DN, Shinsako J, Dallman MF. Medullary lesions eliminate ACTH responses to hypotensive hemorrage. Am J Physiol 1986;251:R106–115.

25. DeKloet ER. Brain, corticosteroid receptor balance and homeostatic control. Front Neuroendocrinol 1991;12:95–164.

26. Diamond MI, Miner JN, Yoshinaga SK, Yamamoto KR. Transcription factor interactions: selectors of positive or negative regulation from a single DNA element. Science 1990;249:1266–1272.

27. Drouin J, Trifiro MA, Plante RK, Nemer M, Eriksson P, Wrange O. Glucocorticoid receptor binding to a specific DNA sequence is required for hormone-dependent repression of proopiomelanocortin gene transcription. Molec Cell Biol 1989;9:5305–5314.

28. Dunn JD, Whitener J. Plasma corticosterone responses to electrical stimulation of the amygdaloid complex: cytoarchitectonic specificity. Neuroendocrinology 1986;42:211–217.

29. Eldridge JC, Brodish A, Kute TE, Landfield PW. Apparent age-related resistence of type II hippocampal corticosteroid receptors to down-regulation during chronic escape training. J Neurosci 1989; 9:3237–3242.

30. Feldman S, Conforti N. Participation of the dorsal hippocampus in glucocorticoid negative feedback effect on adrenocortical activity. Neuroendocrinology 1980;30:52–55.

31. Feldman S, Conforti N. Modifications of adrenocortical responses following frontal cortex stimulation in rats with hypothalamic deafferentations and medial forebrain bundle lesions. Neuroscience 1985;15:1045–1047.

32. Ferraguti F, Zoli M, Aronsson M, et al. Distribution of glutamic acid decarboxylase messenger RNA-containing nerve cell populations of the male rat brain. J Chem Neuroanat 1990;3:377–396.

33. Funder JW. Mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, receptors, and response elements. Science 1993;259:1132–1133.

34. Gertz BJ, Contreras LN, McComb DJ, Kovacs K, Tyrell JB, Dallman MF. Chronic administration of corticotropin-releasing factor increases pituitary corticotroph number. Endocrinology 1987;120: 381–388.

35. Gibson A, Hart SL, Patel S. Effects of 6-hydroxydopamine-induced lesions of the parventricular nucleus, and prazosin, on the corticosterone response to restraint in rats. Neuropharmacology 1986; 25:257–260.

36. Godowski PJ, Picard D, Yamamoto KR. Signal transduction and transcriptional regulation by glucocorticoid receptor-LexA fusion proteins. Science 1988;241:812–816.

37. Gold PW, Loriaux DL, Roy A, et al. Response to corticotropin-releasing hormone in the hypercortisolism of depression and Cushing's disease. New Engl J Med 1986;314:1329–1335.

38. Halbreich U, Asnis GM, Zurrnoff B, Nathan RS. The effect of age and sex on cortisol secretion in depressives and normals. Psychiatry Res 1984;13:221–229.

39. Halbreich U, Asnis GM, Schindledecker R, Zurnoff B, Nathan RS. Cortisol secretion in endogenous depression I. Basal plasma levels. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;42:909–914.

40. Herman JP, Patel PD, Akil H, Watson SJ. Localization and regulation of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor messenger RNAs in the hippocampal formation of the rat. Mol Endocrinol 1989;3:1886–1894.

41. Herman JP, Schafer MK-H, Young EA, et al. Evidence for hippocampal regulation of neuroendocrine neurons of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. J Neurosci 1989;9:3072–3082.

42. Hollenberg SM, Weinberger C, Ong ES, et al. Primary structure and expression of a functional human glucocorticoid receptor cDNA. Nature 1985;318:635–641.

43. Holsboer F, Bardeleden U, Gerken A. Blunted corticotropin and normal cortisol response to human corticotropin-releasing factor in depression. New Engl J Med 1984;311:1127.

44. Issa AM, Rowe W, Gauuthier S, Meaney MJ. Hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal activity in aged, cognitively impaired and cognitively unimpaired rats. J Neurosci 1990;10(10):3247–3254.

45. Jacobson L, Sapolsky R. The role of the hippocampus in feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Endocrine Rev 1991;12:118–134.

46. Jaeckle RS, Kathol RG, Lopez JF, Meller WH, Krummel SJ. Enhanced adrenal sensitivity to exogenous ACTH 1-24 stimulation in major depression; relationship to dexamethasone suppression test results. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44:233–240.

47. Keller-Wood ME, Dallman F. Corticosteroid inhibition of ACTH secretion. Endocrine Rev 1984;5:1–24.

48. Kovacs K, Kiss JZ, Makar GB. Glucocorticoid inplants around the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus prevent the increase of corticotropin-releasing factor and arginine vasopressin immunostaining induced by adrenalectomy. Neuroendocrinology 1986;44: 229–234.

49. Kwak SP, Morano MI, Young EA, Watson SJ, Akil H. Diurnal CRH mRNA rhythm in the hypothalamus: decreased expression in the evening is not dependent on endogenous glucocorticoids. Neuroendocrinology 1993;57:96–105.

50. Kwak SP, Patel PD, Thompson RC, Akil H, Watson SJ. 5¢heterogeneity of the mineralocorticoid receptor mRNA: differential expression and regulation of splice variants within the rat hippocampus. Endocrinology 1993;133:2344–2350.

51. Lamberts SW, Verleun T, Oosterom R. Corticotropin-releasing factor (ovine) and vasopressin exert a synergistic effect on adrenocorticotropin release in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1984;298–303.

52. Landfield P, Waymire J, Lynch G. Hippocampal aging and adrenocorticoids: quantitative correlations. Science 1978;202:1098–1102.

53. Levin N, Blum M, Roberts JL. Modulation of basal and corticotropinreleasing factor-stimulated proopiomelanocortin gene expression by vasopressin in rat anterior pituitary. Endocrinology 1989;125: 2957–2966.

54. Lewis DA, Pfohl B, Schlecte J, Coryell W. Influence of age on the cortisol response to dexamethasone. Psychiatry Res 1984;13:213–220.

55. López JF, Palkovits M, Arato M, Mansour A, Watson SJ. POMC and glucocorticoid receptor gene expression in the pituitaries of suicide victims. Neuroendocrinology 1992;56:491–501.

56. Maquire KP, Schweitzer I, Biddle N, Bridge S, Tiller JWG. The dexamethasone suppression test: importance of dexamethasone concentrations. Biol Psychiatry 1987;22:957–967.

57. Meaney MJ, Aitken DH, Bhatnagar S, VanBerkel C, Sapolsky RM. Postnatal handling attenuates neuroendocrine, anatomical and cognitive impairments related to the aged hippocampus. Science 1988; 238:766–768.

58. Mezey E, Kiss JZ, Skirboll LR. Increase of corticotropin-releasing factor staining in rat paraventricular nucleus neurons by depletion of hypothalamic adrenaline. Nature 1984;310:140–141.

59. Morano MI, Akil H. Age-related changes in the POMC stress axis in the rat. In: Van Ree JM, Mulder AH, Wiegant VM, van Wimersma Greidanus TB, eds. New leads in opioid research. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1990:9–11.

60. Munck A, Guyre PM, Holbrook NJ. Physiological functions of glucocorticoids in stress and their relation to pharmacological actions. Endocrine Rev 1984;5:25–55.

61. Nemeroff CB, Widerlov E, Bisette G, et al. Elevated concentrations of CSF corticotropin-releasing-factor-like immunoreactivity in depressed patients. Science 1984;226:1342–1344.

62. Nemeroff CB, Bissette G, Akil H, Fink M. Cerebrospinal fluid neuropeptides in depressed patients treated with ECT: Corticotropin-releasing factor, beta-endorphin and somatostatin. Br J Psychiatry 1991;158:59–63.

63. Oxenkrug GF, Pomara N, McIntrye IM, Branconnier RJ, Stanley M, Gershon S. Aging and cortisol resistance to suppression by dexamethasone: a positive correlation. Psychiatry Res 1983;10: 125–130.

64. Patel PD, Sherman TG, Goldman DJ, Watson SJ. Molecular cloning of a mineralocorticoid receptor cDNA from rat hippocampus. Mol Endocrinol 1989;3:1877–1885.

65. Paykel ES. Life events and early environment. In: Paykel ES, ed. Handbook of affective disorders. Edinburg: Churchill Livingstone; 1982:146–161.

66. Pearce D, Yamamoto KR. Mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptor activities distinguished by nonreceptor factors at a composite response element. Science 1993;259:1161–1165.

67. Post RM. Transduction of psychosocial stress into the neurobiology of recurrent affective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:999–1010.

68. Reul JM, DeKloet ER. Two receptor systems for corticosterone receptors in rat brain: microdistribution and differential occupation. Endocrinology 1985;117:2505–2511.

69. Roy A, Pickar D, Paul S, Doran A, Ghrousos GP, Gold PW. CSF corticotropin-releasing hormone in depressed patients and normal control subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1987;144:641–5.

70. Sakai DD, Helms S, Carlstedt-Duke J, Gustafsson JA, Rottm FM, Yamamoto KR. Hormone-mediated repression: a negative glucocorticoid response element from the bovine prolactin gene. Genes Dev 1988;2:1144–1154.

71. Saphier D, Feldman S. Effects of neural stimuli on paraventricular nucleus neurons. Brain Res Bull 1985;14:401–407.

72. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen BS. The adrenocortical stress-response in the aged male rat: impairment of recovery from stress. Exp Gerontol 1983;18:55–64.

73. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen BS. Prolonged glucocorticoid exposure reduces hippocampal neuron number: implications for aging. J Neurosci 1985;5:1222–1227.

74. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen BS. The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging: the glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis. Endocrine Rev 1986;7:284–301.

75. Sargeant JK, Bruce ML, Florio LP, Weissman MM. Factors associated with 1-year outcome of major depression in the community. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990;47:519–526.

76. Sawchenko PE, Swanson LW, Steinbusch HWM. The distribution and cells of origin of serotonin inputs to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the rat. Brain Res 1983;277:355–360.

77. Schafer MK, Herman JP, Watson SJ. In situ hybridization analysis of gene expression in the HPA stress axis: regulation by glucocorticoids. Wenner-Grenn International Symposium Series: Visualization of brain function. 1990, 11–22.

78. Scherrer LC, Picard D, Massa E, et al. Evidence that the hormone binding domain of steroid receptors confers hormonal control on chimeric proteins by determining their hormone-regulated binding to heat-shock protein 90. Biochemistry 1993;32:5381–5386.

79. Selye H. The diseases of adaptation. Rec Prog Horm Res 1953; 8:117.

80. Shiomi H, Watson S, Kelsey J. Pretranslational and posttranslational mechanisms for regulating beta-endorphin/ACTH cells: Studies in anterior lobe. Endocrinology 1986;119:1793–1799.

81. Sutton RE, Koob GF, LeMoal M, Rivier J, Vale W. Corticotropin releasing factor produces behavioural activation in rats. Nature 1982;297:331–333.

82. Swanson LW, Simmons DM. Differential steroid hormone and neural influences on peptide mRNA levels in CRH cells of the paraventricular nucleus: a hybridization histochemical study in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1989;285:413–435.

83. Szafarczyk A, Hery M, Laplante E. Temporal relationships between the circadian rhythmicity in plasma levels of pituitary hormones and in hypothalamic concentrations of releasing factors. Neuroendocrinology 1980;30:376.

84. Szafarczyk A, Guillaume V, Conte-Devolx B. Central catecholaminergic system stimulates secretion of CRH at different sites. Am J Physiol 1988;255:E463–E468.

85. Walaas I, Fonnum F. Biochemical evidence for glutamate as a transmitter in hippocampal efferents to the basal forebrain and hypothalamus in the rat brain. Neuroscience 1980;5:1691–1698.

86. Whitnall MH, Smyth D, Gainer H. Vasopressin coexists in half of the corticotropin-releasing factor axons present in the external zone of the median eminence in normal rats. Neuroendocrinology 1987;45:420–424.

87. Yang-Yen HF, Chambard JC, Sun YL, et al. Transcriptional interference between c-Jun and the glucocorticoid receptor: mutal inhibition of DNA binding due to direct protein-protein interaction. Cell 1990;62:1205–1215.

88. Young EA, Akana S, Dallman MF. Decreased sensitivity to glucocorticoid fast feedback in chronically stressed rats. Neuroendocrinology 1990;51:536–542.

89. Young EA, Akil H. Changes in releasability of ACTH and beta-endorphin with chronic stress. Neuropeptides 1985;5:545–548.

90. Young EA, Haskett RF, Murphy-Weinberg V, Watson SJ, Akil H. Loss of glucocorticoid fast feedback in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:693–699.

91. Young EA, Watson SJ, Kotun J, et al. Beta-lippotropin-betaendorphin response to low dose ovine corticotropin releasing factor in endogenous depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990;47:449–57.